7 Tradisi Komunikasi

craig, R. T. (1999). Communication theory as a field. Communication Theory, 9(2), 199-161.
Table 1. Seven Traditions of Communication Theory

	Rhetorical	Semiotic	Phenomenological	Cybernetic	Socio-Psychological	Socio-Cultural	Critical
Communication theorized as:	The practical art of discourse	Intersubjective mediation by signs	Experience of otherness; dialogue	Information processing	Expression, inter-action, & influence	(Re)production of social order	Discursive reflection
Problems of communication theorized as:	Social exigency requiring collective deliberation and judgment	Misunderstanding or gap between subjective viewpoints	Absence of, or failure to sustain, authentic human relationship	Noise; overload; underload; a malfunction or "bug " in a system	Situation requiring manipulation of causes of behavior to achieve specified outcomes	Conflict; alienation; misalignment; failure of coordination	Hegemonic ideology; systematically distorted speech situation
Metadiscursive vocabulary such as:	Art, method, communicator, audience, strategy, commonplace, logic, emotion	Sign, symbol, icon, index, meaning, referent, code, language, medium, (mis)understanding	Experience, self &other, dialogue, genuineness, supportiveness, openness	Source, receiver, signal, informa-tion, noise, feed-back, redundancy, network, function	Behavior, variable, effect, personality, emotion, percep-tion, cognition, attitude, interaction	Society, structure, practice, ritual, rule, socialization, culture, identity, co-construction	Ideology, dialectic, oppression, consciousness-raising, resistance, emancipation
Plausible when appeals to metadiscursive commonplaces such as:	Power of words; value of informed judgment; improvability of practice	Understanding requires common language; omnipresent danger of miscom-munication	All need human contact, should treat others as persons, respect differences, seek common ground	Identity of mind and brain; value of information and logic; complex systems can be unpredictable	Communication reflects personality; beliefs & feelings bias judgments; people in groups affect one another.	The individual is a product of society; every society has a distinct culture; social actions have unintended effects.	Self-perpetuation of power & wealth; values of freedom, equality & reason; discussion produces awareness, insight
Interesting when challenges metadiscursive commonplaces such as:	Mere words are not actions; appearance is not reality; style is not substance; opinion is not truth	Words have correct meanings & stand for thoughts; codes & media are neutral channels	Communication is skill; the word is not the thing; facts are objective and values subjective	Humans and machines differ; emotion is not logical; linear order of cause and effect	Humans are rational beings; we know our own minds; we know what we see.	Individual agency & responsibility; absolute identity of self; naturalness of the social order	Naturalness & rationality of tradi-tional social order; objectivity of sci-ence & technology

Table 2. Topoi for Argumentation across Traditions

	Rhetorical	Semiotic	Phenomenological	Cybernetic	Socio-psychological	Socio-cultural	Critical
Against rhetoric	The art of rhetoric can be learned only by practice; theory merely distracts.	We do not use signs; rather they use us.	Strategic communi-cation is inherently inauthentic & often counterproductive.	Intervention in complex systems involves technical problems rhetoric fails to grasp.	Rhetoric lacks good empirical evidence that its persuasive techniques actually work as intended.	Rhetorical theory is culture bound & overemphasizes individual agency vs. social structure.	Rhetoric reflects traditionalist, instrumentalist, & individualist ideologies.
Against semiotics	All use of signs is rhetorical.	Langue is a fic-tion; meaning & intersubjectivity are indeterminate.	Langue-parole and signifier-signified are false distinc-tions. Languaging constitutes world.	"Meaning" con-sists of functional relationships with-in dynamic infor-mation systems.	Semiotics fails to explain factors that influence the produc-tion & interpretation of messages.	Sign systems are not autonomous; they exist only in the shared practices of actual communities.	Meaning is not fixed by a code; it is a site of social conflict.
Against pheno-menolo-gy	Authenticity is a dangerous myth; good communica-tion must be artful, hence strategic.	Self & other are semiotically de-termined subject positions & exist only in/as signs.	Other’s experience is not experienced directly but only as constituted in ego’s consciousness.	Phenomenological "experience" must occur in the brain as information processing.	Phenomenological introspection falsely assumes self-aware-ness of cognitive processes.	Intersubjectivity is produced by social processes that phenomenology fails to explain.	Individual consciousness is socially consti-tuted, thus ideolo-gically distorted.
Against cyberne-tics	Practical reason cannot (or should not) be reduced to formal calculation.	Functionalist explanations ignore subtleties of sign systems.	Functionalism fails to explain meaning as embodied, con-scious experience.	The observer must be included in the system, rendering it indeterminate.	Cybernetics is too rationalistic; e.g. it underestimates the role of emotion.	Cybernetic models fail to explain how meaning emerges in social interaction.	Cybernetics re-flects the domi-nance of instru-mental reason.
Against socio-psycho-logy	Effects are situational and cannot be precisely predicted.	Socio-psycholo-gical "effects" are internal properties of sign systems.	The subject-object dichotomy of socio-psychology must be transcended.	Communication involves circular causation, not linear causation.	Socio-psychological theories have limited predictive power, even in laboratory.	Socio-psychological "laws" are culture bound & biased by individualism.	Socio-psychology reflects ideologies of individualism, instrumentalism.
Against socio-cultural theory	Socio-cultural rules etc. are contexts & resources for rhe-torical discourse.	Socio-cultural rules etc. are all systems of signs.	The social life-world has a phenomenological foundation.	The functional organization of any social system can be modeled formally.	Socio-cultural theory is vague, untestable, ignores psychological processes that under-lie all social order.	Socio-cultural order is particular & locally negotiated but theory must be abstract and general.	Socio-cultural theory privileges consensus over conflict & change
Against critical theory	Practical reason is based in particular situations not uni-versal principles.	There is nothing outside the text.	Critique is immanent in every authentic encounter with tradition.	Self-organizing systems models account for social conflict & change.	Critical theory confuses facts & values, imposes a dogmatic ideology.	Critical theory im-poses an interpretive frame, fails to appre-ciate local meanings.	Critical theory is elitist & without real influence on social change.

Expressing Comparisons

Expressing Comparisons

Expressing Comparisons

1.      Comparatives are formed by either adding -er or -ier (  -ier if the word ends in a y by changing the y to i and add -er)to the end of a word.

2.      Add more or less is: if the word is three or more syllables

3.      Superlatives are formed by adding -est to the end of the word or by using most or least before the word. The same syllable rule applies here in deciding to use -est or most or least

4.      This rule is a guide only and some words do not follow it. 

·         Big – bigger – the biggest

·         Small – smaller – the smallest

·         Busy – busier – the busiest

·         Wise – wiser- the wisest

·         Beautiful – more beautiful – the most beautiful

·         Diligent – more diligent – the most diligent

·         Good – better - the best

·         Bad – worse - the worst

       

Ex:

A.    Where do you think is the best place to go on a vacation?

B.     Bali, without a doubt.

A.    Why Bali?

B.     Because it has the most beautiful beaches in the country.

A.    That may be true, but it is also one of the most expensive places to vacation.

B.     What place do you think is best?

A.    Lombok. Lombok also has some great beaches, and it is less expensive.

B.     Maybe, but it takes less time to get to Bali than Lombok.

A.    Maybe, but once we get there we would have cleaner, fresher air to breath, unlike Bali. And the streets are safer to walk on in Lombok.

B.     I'll admit that's true.

 

Expressing Prohibition

The act of prohibiting /no allowing/ forbidding something

• It is prohibited to ...
• You aren’t allowed to ...
• You mustn’t ...
• You aren’t permitted to ...
• It is forbidden to ...

Examples:

• Parking is strictly prohibited in front of the gate. (No Parking!)
• Students are not allowed to come late to school.
• You must not park your car here.
• It is forbidden to walk on the grass.
• Smoking is not permitted in the office. (No Smoking!)

·         Smoking is prohibited in this area.

 

Expressing obligation

In the present:

• I have to finish my work today.
• You have got to learn English if you want to study in Australia.
• I must see the doctor soon because I don't feel well.
• It is obligatory that you stop when the traffic light turns red.
• It is necessary that we take a taxi. We are late.

In the past:

• Last month, I had to work extra hours to pay my bills / studies.

 In the future:

• You will have to work harder if you want to pass the exam.

The differences between “Have to” and “must” is that “have to” indicates that someone else has imposed conditions on us.

The difference between must / have to and should:

• Must / have to = 100% obligation.

Ex:  When the traffic light turns red, you must stop.

• Should = 50% obligation. It's more an advice than an obligation.

Ex: You look tired. You should have a rest.

 

Asking for / giving advice

Asking for advice:

I've got a toothache. What do you suggest? If I were you, I would go to the dentist.  / Any solution?

·         Why don't you go to the dentist?

·         You'd better brush your teeth regularly.

·         You should avoid eating sweets

My English is horrible and I think I should do something about it. What do you advise me to do? / What should I do?

·         You'd better start with taking lessons.

·         It might be a good idea to read more English books.

·         I advise you to listen to English conversations.

·         Have you thought about taking lessons?

Declining to give advice

• I don't know what to advise, I'm afraid.
• I wish I could suggest something, but I can't.
• I wish I could help.
• I'm afraid I can't really help you.

Complaining

Expressions of "displeasure or annoyance" in response to an action that is seen by the speaker as unfavorable.

·         I have a complaint to make. Your salad is too salty.

·         I'm sorry to say this but your food is inedible.

·         I'm afraid I've got a complaint about your child. He's too noisy.

·          I'm afraid there is a slight problem with the service in this shop.

·         Excuse me but you’re parking in front of my house.

·          I want to complain about the noise you are making.

·         I'm angry about the way you treat me.

Responses

Positive

• I'm so sorry. It will never occur / happen again.
• I'm sorry, we promise never to do the same mistake again.
• I'm really sorry; we'll do our best not to do the same mistake again.

 Negative

• Sorry, but  there is nothing I can do about it.
• I'm afraid; there isn't much we can do about it.
• We are sorry but the food is just alright.
• Sorry, but I did nothing wrong.

Expressing cause and effect

Talking about an effect resulting from a certain cause

Examples

•  He is absent because he’s sick.
• I was not there since I was too busy.
• She can't read the letter as she is illiterate.
• He can't run fast for he is too old.
• Owing to his intelligence, he managed to solve the problem.
• Due to the bad weather, we didn’t go for a picnic. / Due to his laziness, he didn't pass the exam.
• The cause of global warming is pollution. / Global warming is caused by / is due to pollution.
• Thanks to his hard work he passed the exam / he succeed.

Notes

1.      Due to, because of, owing to and thanks to:  followed by a noun.

2.      Because, since, as, for: followed by a verb.

3.      Owing to and due to are used interchangeably by native speakers although some state that there is a difference.

·         Due to: If you can use caused by then you can also use due to: The cancellation of the flight was due to (caused by) high winds.

·         Owing to: If you can use because of then you should use owing to rather than due to: The flight was cancelled owing to (because of) high winds.

Expressing lack of understanding

·         Pardon?

·         Excuse me, but I don’t understand.

·         I beg your pardon, but I don't quite understand.

·         Excuse me; I'm not quite sure I know what you mean. 

·         I'm not quite sure I follow you.

·         I don't quite see what you mean.

·         I'm not sure I got your point.

·         Sorry, I didn't quite hear what you said.

·         Sorry, I didn't get your point.

·         I don't quite see what you're getting at.

Asking for clarification

When you don't understand what someone has said, you can ask for clarification using the following expressions:

• What do you mean by...?
• Do you mean...?
• Could you say that again, please?
• Could you repeat, please?
• Could you clarify that, please?
• Would you elaborate on that, please?
• Could you be more explicit?
• Could you explain what you mean by...?
• Could you give me an example?
• I wonder if you could say that in a different way.
• Could you put it differently, please?
• Could you be more specific, please?

Asking / giving directions

Asking about directions:

·         How can I get to the bus station from here?

·         How can I get to the town center?

·         Can you show me the way to the nearest bank from here?

·         Can you tell me how to get to . . . ?

·         Where is . . . ?

·         What's the best way to get to . . . ?

·         Excuse me. Is there a grocery store around here?

Giving directions:

 Prepositions of location most commonly used when giving directions:  

·         go straight                  go to                           turn right                     turn left        

·         cross                          on your right               on your left                  beside

·         next to                         behind                        across from                in front of  

·         Go straight on

·         Turn left/right

·         Take the first (turning) to the left/right.

·         Go past the (restaurant/school)...

·         The ... is beside/in front of/next to (the)...

·         Take this road go down there  

·         Take the…( second on the right turn at the crossroads)  

·         Continue straight ahead for about…  (a mile)

·         Keep going for another…  (two hundred meters)

·         Yeah. There's … (one right across the street).

·         Sorry. I don't live around here.

It’ll be ... on your left / on your right /straight ahead of you.

How far is it?

·         How far is it to the airport?

·         How far is it to the beach from here?

·         How far is it?  

·         Is it far?

·         Is it a long way?  

Responses

·         It’s not far.

·         Quite close.

·         Quite a long way.

·         A long way on foot. you

·         A long way to walk.

·         About a mile / 200 meters from here.

Ex:

A.    Excuse me! Excuse me. Is there a post office around here?

B.     Go to the next light and turn left. It’s on the right.

A.    Is it far?

B.     No, it’s about 200 m.

A.    Thank you. Have a nice day!

B.     You’re welcome. You too.

Expressing Surprise

·         Really?

·         Indeed?

·         That’s very surprising.

·         What a surprise!

·         My goodness

·         I find that very surprising.

·         I must say it surprises me.

·         I find it extraordinary.

·         Did / do you?

·         Have you?

Ex 1:

A.    There is a new movie in cinema.

B.     I've seen that movie already.

A.    Have you?

B.     Yes, with my brother. He loves Jackie Chan.

Ex2:

A.    Last week, I was in Lombok, with my family.

B.     Really?

A.    Yeah, it was a nice vacation.

Expressing Condolence

·         Please accept my/our sincere condolences.

·         I would like to express my sincere condolences on (the death of................)

·         I am so sorry to hear about your loss.

·         I was heartbroken by this sad news.

·         I was shocked and saddened to hear about it.

Responses

·         Thank you for all the concerns and sympathies

·         Thank you for your care and love in this matter.

·         Thank you; it is greatly appreciated at this sad time.

Saying ‘good bye”

·         It's been nice talking to you.

·         Nice talking to you too.

·         (I'm sorry, but) I have to go now.

·         Good bye

·          Goodbye! Have a fun journey.

·         See you later / soon.

·         Catch you later

So long